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Liposomes are commercially prepared vesicles constructed from a bilayer of phospholipid molecules. In laymen’s terms, these are fat-soluble bubbles made out of the same material as the phospholipid membrane of a biological cell. The diameter of a liposome can be measured in nanometers. These commercially useful structures were discovered by Alec D. Bangham, a scientist at Cambridge, who was investigating phospholipids and blood clotting in 1961. Since that time, they have proven themselves highly useful in science and industry. The word ‘liposome’ is derived from the Greek words for fat and body, ‘lipos’ and ‘soma’, respectively.

Phospholipids are one of the major types of molecule in plant and animal organisms. They are composed of a polar, hydrophilic (water-loving) head and two tails of non-polar, hydrophobic (water-hating) fatty acids. These important molecules form the structure of our cell membranes. In an aqueous environment, such as that found in the interior of a plant or animal cell, phospholipids aggregate to form double layered spheres. The hydrophilic heads face the watery interior and exterior while their hydrophobic chains segregate out together toward the interior of the vesicle.

In biological systems found in nature, various types of molecules like proteins and carbohydrates are embedded in the phospholipid cell membrane where they perform a range of functions. Depending on what type of cell they enclose, membranes function in cell signalling and transport. They facilitate the transport in and out of the cell of things like ions, glucose and neurotransmitters. These useful natural properties have been adopted by the pharmaceutical and skin care industries.

Liposomes fall into three classes depending on the number of phospholipid bilayers they contain. Small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) and large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) are composed of a single bilayer of phospholipid molecules. Multi-lamellar vesicles (MLVs), on the other hand, contain two or more bilayers. The properties displayed by these structures have valuable commercial applications.

For one thing, their structure is stable in solution. Additionally, liposomes can engulf either hydrophobic or hydrophilic molecules and deliver them to their target environment. Thirdly, the phospholipid membrane is differentially, that is, selectively, permeable to different sorts of molecules. Each one of these properties can be manipulated to achieve the desired result.

Liposomes are ideal for transporting hydrophilic drugs across hydrophobic membranes. The the water-insoluble membranes of the drug-containing vesicle and the cell coalesce and the aqueous drug contained inside the vesicles is released into the interior of the cell. One of the earliest applications for this technology was for the introduction of drug into tumor cells.

Called nanopharmaceutical products because of their size, the liposomal formulation for doxorubicin was the first such product launched into the marketplace. Doxorubicin is a type of antibiotic used as chemotherapy in cancer. Also known as ‘stealth’ liposomes, these vesicles target tumor tissue using a mechanism called Enhanced Permeation and Retention (EPR).

Liposome skin treatments have also revealed themselves to be very effective in improving the appearance of aging skin. Cosmetic companies use liposomes for their special ability to provide the skin with essential nutrients that promote collagen production, essential for elasticity. Liposomes reach down through the upper layers of the skin right down to the cellular level where they are most useful. They revitalize the skin by improving hydration, erasing fine lines, removing wrinkles and making improvements to skin texture.

Check out www.encapsula.com for details about different classes of liposomes, now. You can also get more information about a formulator and manufacturer of plain, multilamellar vesicles and unilamellar liposomes Nashville area at http://www.encapsula.com today.

Biodiesel from algae is an alternative source to fossil fuel. Algae are cultivated, harvested and refined to produce different kinds of fuels. There is a lot of investment by companies and governments to boost and commercialize production. Carbon dioxide gas that the fuels produce is reabsorbed from the atmosphere. This is an advantage over fossil alternatives.

Research is more inclined to utilization of microalgae organisms for production on large scale. Microalgae are organisms that make their own food by photosynthesis. They include cyanobacteria and diatoms. Microalgae are preferred than macroalgae since they grow faster, their oil content is high and they are less in complexity. Each different species generates different quantities of oil.

The major species of algae that are applied for commercial production are Gracilaria, Chlorella, Botryococcus braunii, Dunaliella tertiolecta and Sargassum among numerous others. Preference for a certain strain should depend on availability, ease of growth and costs of maintenance among others. One also needs to consider picking a strain that has multiple uses, for instance Chlorella may be repacked as human food after extracting oil from its cells.

Once a certain species is selected, necessary growth conditions must be made present so that the algae can thrive. The key conditions comprise light, carbon dioxide gas and water. Reproduction is improved by some nutrients that must be present. Such nutrients comprise phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium. Chlorides, silica and iron are important for healthy and accelerated growth. Nutrients are inexpensive and available in shops.

The organisms can be raised in different environments including pits of wastewater and specifically designed equipments. The equipments are called bioreactors. They are long tunnels made of plastic and ensure a constant flow of water to make sure that the medium remains fresh. They can be supplied with light from light emitting diodes, the sun or phosphorescent bulbs. The water in the bioreactors should be kept at medium salinity. The type of bioreactor dictates if the culture is to be continuous or in patches.

Microalgae reproduce at high rates and therefore are able tore-establish their cultures after harvesting. This ability makes it okay to harvest as much as 90 percent of the culture. The harvested vegetation is then left to dry on the sun. Other electrical techniques may also be utilized to dehydrate them.

Once the plants are properly dried there are numerous methods of extracting oil. The methods may be combined to attain better and higher produce. The dried plants are passed in oil presses to extract up to seventy six percent of the total oil contained. After this, the remaining pulp is further combined with hexane to absorb the remaining oil. Once oil is extracted, it goes through a sequence of procedures to refine it into different fuels including biobutanol, methane, biogasoline, bioethanol and biodiesel among others.

Biodiesel from algae can be used to power various machines. It is a good alternative to diesel for diesel powered engines. It is cheaper to produce a factor that makes it cheaper comparing to other fuels. It is sustainable because its production can be improved to any levels.

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The population of the earth is ever growing and with it grows the need for power. Until now these needs have been met by the consumption of fossil fuels. The problem is that eventually the sources of these fuels will dry up leading to rising prices and shortages. Also an issue is the fact that the burning of these fuels is damaging to the environment and it seems likely that eventually this will lead to any number of natural disasters. Thankfully there are other options and algae biofuel may be the best of these.

Biofuels are made by the extraction of naturally occurring oils from plants. There are only a relatively few plants that contain the amounts and quality of oils necessary to make the process worthwhile. Until recently corn and palm nuts were seen as the best choices but now it seems that algae may out perform both of them.

Even among algae, not all are created equal when it comes to oil creation. There are hundreds of thousands of different types of algae growing any where there is sunlight and moisture. Of those tested so far it seems that pond scum contains the most high quality oil.

One major advantage to the choice of algae biofuel is how easy it would be to farm it. Unlike corn and palm nuts there is no need for huge tracts of land. No need for fertilizers or plowing. All these little plants need are water, sunlight and carbon dioxide all of which are easily available.

The common fuel sources in use today all have proven to be damaging to the environment. Not only does the burning of these spew huge amounts of carbon dioxide and other chemicals into the atmosphere but the means by which they are acquired can also destroy ecosystems. Widespread use of algae as a power source could resolve these issues in two ways. First the more algae being grown the more of it there is to filter carbon dioxide out of the air. Second, for every person or industry that chooses biodiesel there is one less using fossil fuel.

Obviously, algae biofuel will not resolve all of the world’s power supply ills. There is a great deal more work to be done before it is ready for use by the average consumer. Add to that the extraordinary cost of wide scale conversion of homes, vehicles and industry to biodiesel and it is easy to understand why it may be quite some time before a person can pull into a gas station and fill up with biofuel.

Of course, without extensive testing there are also the issues of safety and storage that have not yet been addressed. Until the public can be assured that using biodiesel is safe they will not want to use it. Also unclear is how long these fuels could be stored without degrading.

None of these possible issues with algae biofuel are impossible to overcome. In a world that may soon be fighting over the last few drops of oil it seems high time to kick the research into this and other biofuels into high gear. It would be wise for the human population to take this issue seriously before the scales tip and the damage done can not be fixed. Perhaps the often overlooked pond scum may be the answer.

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